Wednesday, June 3, 2009
Air Drying OF Timber
Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the air. The technique of air drying consists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean, cool, dry and shady place. Rate of drying largely depends on climatic conditions, and on the air movement (exposure to the wind). For successful air drying, a continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber needs to be arranged (Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996). The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by coating the planks with any substance that is relatively impermeable to moisture; ordinary mineral oil is usually quite effective. Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint, improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping planks or logs in materials which will allow some movement of moisture, generally works very well provided the wood is first treated against fungal infection by coating in petrol/gasoline or oil. Mineral oil will generally not soak in more than 1-2 mm below the surface and is easily removed by planing when the timber is suitably dry.
Kiln Drying Of Timber
The process of kiln drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be directly, using natural gas and/or electricity or indirectly, through steam-heated heat exchangers, although solar energy is also possible. In the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation is provided to give conditions at various stages (moisture contents or times) of drying the timber to achieve effective drying. For this purpose, the timber is stacked in chambers, called wood drying kilns, which are fitted with equipment for manipulation and control of the temperature and the relative humidity of the drying air and its circulation rate through the timber stack (Walker et al., 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie, 1996).
Kiln drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. In kiln drying as in air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:
Timber can be dried to any desired low moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.
The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.
This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital is just sitting there for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing an industrial kiln, to say nothing of maintenance and operation, is expensive.
In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.
In air drying, there is little control over the drying elements, so drying degrade cannot be controlled.
The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60 °C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.
If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months.
The significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kiln and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying.
Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied from time to time in such a way that the kilns provide control over the entire charge of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split.
The main elements of kiln drying are described below: a) Construction materials: The kiln chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern kilns. Some of the elements used in kiln construction. However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications. b) Heating: Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for heating. c) Humidification: Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the chamber in all types of kilns. d) Air circulation: Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan kiln). Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge.[2] Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature.
Kiln drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic weather conditions. In kiln drying as in air drying, unsaturated air is used as the drying medium. Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln and solar drying is given below:
Timber can be dried to any desired low moisture content by conventional or solar kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to attain for most locations.
The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln drying, followed by air drying.
This means that if capital outlay is involved, this capital is just sitting there for a longer time when air drying is used. On the other hand, installing an industrial kiln, to say nothing of maintenance and operation, is expensive.
In addition, wood that is being air dried takes up space, which could also cost money.
In air drying, there is little control over the drying elements, so drying degrade cannot be controlled.
The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60 °C is used for the drying schedule. This is not guaranteed in air drying.
If air drying is done improperly (exposed to the sun), the rate of drying may be overly rapid in the dry summer months, causing cracking and splitting, and too slow during the cold winter months.
The significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput and better control of the final moisture content. Conventional kiln and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any moisture content regardless of weather conditions. For most large-scale drying operations solar and conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying.
Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber companies. A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are successively varied from time to time in such a way that the kilns provide control over the entire charge of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness, including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and split.
The main elements of kiln drying are described below: a) Construction materials: The kiln chambers are generally built of brick masonry, or hollow cement-concrete slabs. Sheet metal or prefabricated aluminium in a double-walled construction with sandwiched thermal insulation, such as glass wool or polyurethane foams, are materials that are also used in some modern kilns. Some of the elements used in kiln construction. However, brick masonry chambers, with lime and (mortar) plaster on the inside and painted with impermeable coatings, are used widely and have been found to be satisfactory for many applications. b) Heating: Heating is usually carried out by steam heat exchangers and pipes of various configurations (e.g. plain, or finned (transverse or longitudinal) tubes) or by large flue pipes through which hot gases from a wood burning furnace are passed. Only occasionally is electricity or gas employed for heating. c) Humidification: Humidification is commonly accomplished by introducing live steam into the kiln through a steam spray pipe. In order to limit and control the humidity of the air when large quantities of moisture are being rapidly evaporated from the timber, there is normally a provision for ventilation of the chamber in all types of kilns. d) Air circulation: Air circulation is the means for carrying the heat to and the moisture away from all parts of a load. Forced circulation kilns are most common, where the air is circulated by means of fans or blowers, which may be installed outside the kiln chamber (external fan kiln) or inside it (internal fan kiln). Throughout the process, it is necessary to keep close control of the moisture content using a moisture meter system in order to reduce over-drying and allow operators to know when to pull the charge.[2] Preferably, this in-kiln moisture meter will have an auto-shutoff feature.
Free Body Diagram
A free body diagram is a pictorial representation often used by physicists and engineers to analyze the forces acting on a free body. A free body diagram shows all contact and non-contact forces acting on the body. Drawing such a diagram can aid in solving for the unknown forces or the equations of motion of the body. Creating a free body diagram can make it easier to understand the forces, and moments, in relation to one another and suggest the proper concepts to apply in order to find the solution to a problem. The diagrams are also used as a conceptual device to help identify the internal forces—for example, shear forces and bending moments in beams—which are developed within structures.
Beam
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Business Proposal
There are three distinct categories of business proposals: formally solicited, informally solicited, and unsolicited. Solicited proposals are written in response to published requirements, contained in a Request for Proposal (RFP), Request for Quotation (RFQ), or an Invitation for Bids (IFB). RFPs provide detailed specifications of what the customers wants to buy and sometimes include directions for preparing the proposal, as well as evaluation criteria the customer will use to evaluate offers. Customers issue RFPs when their needs cannot be met with generally available products or services. Proposals in response to RFPs are seldom less than 10 pages and sometimes reach 1,000's of pages, with out cost data.[1]
Customers issue RFQs when they want to buy large amounts of a commodity and price is not the only issue--for example, when availability or delivering or service are considerations. RFQs can be very detailed, so proposals written to RFQs can be lengthy but generally much short than an RFP-proposal.[1] RFQ proposals consist primarily of cost data, with small narratives addressing customer issues, such as quality control.
Customers issue IFBs when they are buying some service, such as construction. The requirements are detailed, but the primary consideration is price. For example, a customer provides architectural blueprints for contractors to bid on. These proposals are be lengthy but most of the length comes from cost-estimating data and detailed schedules.[1]
Sometimes before a customer issues an RFP or RFQ or IFB, the customer will issue a Request for Information (RFI). The purpose of the RFI is to gain "marketing intelligence" about what products, services, and vendors are available. RFIs are used to shape final RFPs, RFQs, and IFBs, so potential vendors take great care in responding to these requests, hoping to shape the eventual formal solicitation toward their products or services.[1]
Informally solicited proposals are typically the result of conversations held between a vendor and a prospective customer. The customer is interested enough in a product or service to ask for a proposal. Typically, the customer does not ask for competing proposals from other vendors. This type of proposal is known as a sole-source proposal. There are no formal requirements to respond to, just the information gleaned from customer meetings. These proposals are typically less than 25-pages, with many less than 5 pages.[1]
Unsolicited proposals are marketing brochures. They are always generic, with no direct connection between customer needs or specified requirements. Vendors use them to introduce a product or service to a prospective customer. They are often used as "leave-behinds" at the end of initial meetings with customers or "give-aways" at trade shows or other public meetings. They are not designed to close a sale, just introduce the possibility of a sale.[2]
A proposal puts the buyer's requirements in a context that favors the sellers products and services, and educates the buyer about the capabilities of the seller in satisfying their needs. A successful proposal results in a sale, where both parties get what they want, a win-win situation.[3]
The professional organization devoted to the advancement of the art and science of proposal development is The Association of Proposal Management Professionals.[4]
Customers issue RFQs when they want to buy large amounts of a commodity and price is not the only issue--for example, when availability or delivering or service are considerations. RFQs can be very detailed, so proposals written to RFQs can be lengthy but generally much short than an RFP-proposal.[1] RFQ proposals consist primarily of cost data, with small narratives addressing customer issues, such as quality control.
Customers issue IFBs when they are buying some service, such as construction. The requirements are detailed, but the primary consideration is price. For example, a customer provides architectural blueprints for contractors to bid on. These proposals are be lengthy but most of the length comes from cost-estimating data and detailed schedules.[1]
Sometimes before a customer issues an RFP or RFQ or IFB, the customer will issue a Request for Information (RFI). The purpose of the RFI is to gain "marketing intelligence" about what products, services, and vendors are available. RFIs are used to shape final RFPs, RFQs, and IFBs, so potential vendors take great care in responding to these requests, hoping to shape the eventual formal solicitation toward their products or services.[1]
Informally solicited proposals are typically the result of conversations held between a vendor and a prospective customer. The customer is interested enough in a product or service to ask for a proposal. Typically, the customer does not ask for competing proposals from other vendors. This type of proposal is known as a sole-source proposal. There are no formal requirements to respond to, just the information gleaned from customer meetings. These proposals are typically less than 25-pages, with many less than 5 pages.[1]
Unsolicited proposals are marketing brochures. They are always generic, with no direct connection between customer needs or specified requirements. Vendors use them to introduce a product or service to a prospective customer. They are often used as "leave-behinds" at the end of initial meetings with customers or "give-aways" at trade shows or other public meetings. They are not designed to close a sale, just introduce the possibility of a sale.[2]
A proposal puts the buyer's requirements in a context that favors the sellers products and services, and educates the buyer about the capabilities of the seller in satisfying their needs. A successful proposal results in a sale, where both parties get what they want, a win-win situation.[3]
The professional organization devoted to the advancement of the art and science of proposal development is The Association of Proposal Management Professionals.[4]
Mean Value Theorem
{{calculus}}
Let ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' be a [[continuous function]] on the closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [''a'', ''b''], and [[derivative|differentiable]] on the open interval (''a'', ''b''), where {{nowrap|''a'' < ''b''.}} Then there exists some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b'') such that
::
The mean value theorem is a generalization of [[Rolle's theorem]], which assumes ''f''(''a'') = ''f''(''b''), so that the right-hand side above is zero.
The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting. One only needs to assume that ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' is [[continuous function|continuous]] on [''a'', ''b''], and that for every ''x'' in (''a'', ''b'') the [[limit of a function|limit]]
:
exists as a finite number or equals +∞ or −∞. If finite, that limit equals ''f' ''(''x''). An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued [[cube root]] function mapping ''x'' to ''x''1/3, whose [[derivative]] tends to infinity at the origin.
Note that the theorem is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued. Indeed, define for all real ''x''. Then
:,
while
:.
Let ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' be a [[continuous function]] on the closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [''a'', ''b''], and [[derivative|differentiable]] on the open interval (''a'', ''b''), where {{nowrap|''a'' < ''b''.}} Then there exists some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b'') such that
::
The mean value theorem is a generalization of [[Rolle's theorem]], which assumes ''f''(''a'') = ''f''(''b''), so that the right-hand side above is zero.
The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting. One only needs to assume that ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' is [[continuous function|continuous]] on [''a'', ''b''], and that for every ''x'' in (''a'', ''b'') the [[limit of a function|limit]]
:
exists as a finite number or equals +∞ or −∞. If finite, that limit equals ''f' ''(''x''). An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued [[cube root]] function mapping ''x'' to ''x''1/3, whose [[derivative]] tends to infinity at the origin.
Note that the theorem is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued. Indeed, define for all real ''x''. Then
:,
while
:.
Steel
Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.14% by weight (C:110–10Fe), depending on grade. Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.[1] Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron (as austenite) is 2.14% by weight, occurring at 1149 °C; higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures will produce cementite. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point and castability.[1] Steel is also to be distinguished from wrought iron containing only a very small amount of other elements, but containing 1–3% by weight of slag in the form of particles elongated in one direction, giving the iron a characteristic grain. It is more rust-resistant than steel and welds more easily. It is common today to talk about 'the iron and steel industry' as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products.
Stress
Stress – Stress is the intensity of a force in a given area. There are three general types of stress: normal stress caused by axial loading, shear stress caused by equal and opposite transverse loading, and bearing stress caused by bolts or pins in the components that they connect together.
Young’s Modulus
Young’s Modulus – Young’s Modulus is also called the modulus of elasticity, and is depicted in equations as “E”. This factor varies in materials based on alloy, heat treatment, and the method of manufacture, so values of E are generally determined experimentally and can be accessed from material tables. Young’s Modulus defines how much a specific material stretches under load, and is used to convert stress to strain. The level of strain in a component is equal to Young’s Modulus for the component divided by the stress. This relationship is known as Hooke’s Law. Stress versus strain relationships are quantified experimentally and are plotted in a stress-strain diagram
Some Books For B E
Applied Mechanics-By Beer & Johnson
Strength of Materials-By E.E Popov(more conceptual), By Rajput(a no. of Numericals)
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics-By P N Modi, By A K jain
Theory of Structures-By C S Reddy for both parts(I think the book is really a very good book) , By Norris et al for both parts(takes long time to read ,even a single word of it may produce a sound concept,two pages of it may prove heavier than several pages of a general book ,excellent for consistent deformation method) , By O P Jain, By C K Wang (simple than expected ,student oriented)for especially II part
Water supply and Sanitary Engineering ,both By B C Punmia(I think if book by B C Punmia is most preferable in any subject ,it is for water supply and sanitary engineering till this date of my experience)
Hydrology- By Subrahamanya(a systematic presentation,clear)
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering-By Arora(very serious about students,excellent presentation in simplest way, writer seems to be very expert) :By S B Segal(sound concept can be gained through it)
Irrigation engineering :By K.R. Arora (the same writer as above) It is a very good book. It will also help for the hydropower engineering in the next semester. The decision to buy this book will not produce confession. :By S K Garg(can be refered as a text book)
Transportation engineeringI: The mannual by Partha Mani Parajuli is so good that no other book caninterfere it to be a one.In deed such a document should be published as a book that becomes available in the market.
The next are:by Khanna& Justo, Gurucharan Singh
Transportation Engineering II:By Justo& Khanna By:Kadyali
source==
Strength of Materials-By E.E Popov(more conceptual), By Rajput(a no. of Numericals)
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics-By P N Modi, By A K jain
Theory of Structures-By C S Reddy for both parts(I think the book is really a very good book) , By Norris et al for both parts(takes long time to read ,even a single word of it may produce a sound concept,two pages of it may prove heavier than several pages of a general book ,excellent for consistent deformation method) , By O P Jain, By C K Wang (simple than expected ,student oriented)for especially II part
Water supply and Sanitary Engineering ,both By B C Punmia(I think if book by B C Punmia is most preferable in any subject ,it is for water supply and sanitary engineering till this date of my experience)
Hydrology- By Subrahamanya(a systematic presentation,clear)
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering-By Arora(very serious about students,excellent presentation in simplest way, writer seems to be very expert) :By S B Segal(sound concept can be gained through it)
Irrigation engineering :By K.R. Arora (the same writer as above) It is a very good book. It will also help for the hydropower engineering in the next semester. The decision to buy this book will not produce confession. :By S K Garg(can be refered as a text book)
Transportation engineeringI: The mannual by Partha Mani Parajuli is so good that no other book caninterfere it to be a one.In deed such a document should be published as a book that becomes available in the market.
The next are:by Khanna& Justo, Gurucharan Singh
Transportation Engineering II:By Justo& Khanna By:Kadyali
source==
A stress-strain diagram helps engineers select the right materials for specific loading conditions.
Introduction to Stress-Strain Diagrams
A Tool for Understanding Material Behavior under Load
Two of the important concepts in strength of materials calculations are stress and strain. Stress is the intensity of an applied force over a specific area. If a load of 100 pounds is applied axially to a square rod with a cross-section of one square inch, the axial stress is 100 pounds per square inch.
Strain is the representation of extension or compression of a component under load. Strain is dependent on the geometry of the part and the material properties of the part, and is defined as the change in length of the part divided by the original length.
Strain is technically a unit-less quantity, but because strains are generally very small, they are often quantified using the term micro-strain, or the strain amount multiplied by 1 million. Conventionally, parts in tension exhibit positive strain or stress, and parts in compression exhibit negative strain or stress.
What is a Stress-Strain Diagram?
A stress-strain diagram is a graph that represents how a part behaves under an increasing load, and is often used by engineers when selecting materials for specific designs. A stress-strain diagram generally contains three parts:
Elastic Deformation – The elastic deformation portion of the stress-strain diagram is generally represented as a linear relationship between stress and strain. If the load is released while the specimen is in the elastic deformation zone, it will return to its original dimensions.
Plastic Deformation – In the plastic deformation portion of the stress-strain diagram, the specimen begins to yield. The maximum strength of the specimen occurs in this zone, and the carried load begins to drop off as the deformation increases. The specimen endures some permanent deformation that remains after the load is released.
Rupture – The point at which a specimen breaks into two parts
Stress-strain diagrams are generated experimentally through the performance of controlled tensile tests using precisely fabricated test specimens. The applied load and displacement are monitored during the test, and are used to calculate stress and strain, respectively.
What Properties do Stress-Strain Diagrams Illustrate?
Ductile materials will have a far longer plastic deformation zone than brittle materials, as shown in the figure below. The specimen continues to hold load because the plastically deformed material undergoes strain hardening. Ductile materials will also exhibit significant narrowing at one portion of the specimen as the length increases until rupture occurs.
A stress-strain curve can also be used to determine the yield strength of a specimen. Yield strength is defined at the stress level at which the part achieves a 0.2% permanent deformation, as shown in the figure below.
Stress-strain curves exist for a variety of materials and alloys, allowing engineers to select the right material for their particular application.
Source
Beer, F., Johnston, E.R., Mechanics of Materials, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
The Stress Intensity Factor
How Stresses can be Accurately Predicted around Cracks
The stress intensity factor uses geometric and load distribution properties to determine stress levels and predict crack growth.
The study of fracture mechanics helps engineers understand how mechanical system behave and eventually fail due to the initiation and progression of cracks. One of the parameters that are used to understand crack growth is the stress intensity factor. The stress intensity factor shows how stresses in the region near the tip of the crack, where the crack growth is actively progressing, are affected by the applied load and the crack geometry.
Stress Intensity Factor Development
The stress intensity factor was developed by engineers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in the 1940s. The team, led by G.R. Irwin, was attempting to calculate the amount of energy in a material that was available for fracture progression. They developed an equation for the stress field at the tip of a crack. One of the terms in this equation was the stress intensity factor, which is based on the size and location of the crack, as well as the geometry of the component that contains the crack.
Stress Intensity Factor Notation
The stress intensity factor is represented in equations as “K”. The stress intensity factor often contains a subscript of I, II, or III to define the loading mode. Because Mode I scenarios (a part loaded axially with the crack progressing perpendicular to the load application) are more common than the other loading modes, and contribute more to crack initiation and growth, this mode is the most commonly studied of the three.
Influences of the Stress Intensity Factor
The value and rate of change of the stress intensity factor directly influences the rate of crack growth in a component. A common reference graph for many materials plots the rate of crack growth (change in crack length per load cycle) versus the change in the stress intensity factor.
The stress intensity factor does help to provide an accurate understanding of stress levels in the crack tip region, but assumes a purely elastic situation. The accuracy is reduced as the location approaches the actual crack tip where local plastic deformation is occurring. The stress intensity factor is also more accurate when evaluating brittle materials as opposed to ductile materials that deform significantly prior to failure.
Values for stress intensity factor for a wide variety of materials and geometries have been empirically and experimentally determined, and are available in existing literature.
Sources
Irwin, G., Analysis of Stresses and Strains Near the End of a Crack Traversing a Plate, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 24, pp 361-364, 1957.
Shukla, A., Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, CRC Press, 2004
The Silk Road-------------The riches of the East
The Silk Road
The riches of the East
The silk road is really a conglomeration of caravan routes. Its roots reach back through time, probably to as early as 1000 B.C. , and much earlier along portions of the route. It was a trade route that served several of the world’s greatest empires. Including the Persians and Alexander the Great, who may be credited for forging a more solid trade link between the East and the West through his military exploits, and inaugurating the first great golden age of the silk road. The Ptolemies then inherited this trading link, and a few centuries later the Silk Road was in its second and greatest golden age linking the far reaches of Northern China to the utmost reaches of the Roman Empire.
With the exchange of goods was coupled an exchange of ideas and cultural symbols. This exchange is a fascinating topic in and of itself, and links can be found between the Greeks and the Japanese, the Romans and the Chinese, and many more. India in this period was a sort of cultural melting pot that has earned the name Greco-Buddhist which is a fascinating case study of cultural exchange. Wealthy Romans took to wearing silk from China, and there was an outcry among more morally conservative Romans. They considered the clinging fabric to be virtually transparent, and claimed that women wearing silk in public might as well be walking around nude.
The fall of the Western Half of the Roman Empire ended this second heyday of the Silk Road, but the remainder was soon consolidated under one government, the Mongols, and some might consider this its third and final golden period. The silk road was truly the central feature of the largest contiguous land empire in history, and the Mongols thrived on the trade and prosperity it brought them, eventually becoming assimilated into Chinese culture.
By 700 A.D. Islam arose to dominate many of the former western Mongol lands, only to be conquered by/merged with a fierce wave of Turkoman horsemen who would chop up the former non Chinese part of the Mongol expanse among themselves. These same horsemen also conquered Byzantium, the last remnant of the former glory of Rome. Constantinople fell around 1400 A.D. The new political and military climate reduced the importance of the silk road, and made trade much more difficult. (I realize I just lumped 700 years of a complex story into a few sentences, but that’s a fairly accurate assessment for the purpose of this topic.) The trade continued, but continued to slow throughout this period.
When this land route was reduced to a trickle Europeans began to seek new ways to tap the riches of the East, and this led to the voyages of men like Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan (just to name two of the most famous). In short, the known riches of the East and the loss of political stability along the silk road were the spurs that drove the great European Age of Exploration.
Source ::::
course structure
B. E.
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Year : I Part : B
S.No. Course Code Subject
1 EG 405 SH Intro. to Com. & Progra.
2 EG 432 M Workshop Technology I
3 EG 471 SH Mathematics II
4 EG 472 SH Physics
5 EG 474 SH Communication II (Eng.)
6 EG 483 M Engineering Drawing II
7 EG 491 CE Applied Mechanics II (Dynamics)
course structure
B. E.
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Year : I Part : A
S.No. Course code SubjectTitles
1 EG 401 SH MathematicsI
2 EG 403 SH Chemistry
3 EG 404 SH Communication I (Eng.)
4 EG 433 ME Engineering Drawing I
5 EG 441 CE Applied Mechanics I (Statics)
Higher Education Background Of NEPAL
Prior to the ten-plus-two (or the higher secondary education) system, students would continue their studies at the Proficiency Certificate Level (PCL) at the Tribhuvan University in Nepal and its affiliated colleges after passing the SLC examination. The PCL program is still being run in 2001, but is slated to be phased out because all students were going through the ten-plus-two system of post secondary education.
The first institution of higher education to be established in Nepal was the Tribhuvan Chandra Intermediate College (later renamed Tri-Chandra College) in 1918. The Rana Prime Minister, Chandra Shamsher, was opposed to higher education and saw it as a threat to monarchy. Nonetheless, he yielded to the growing pressure from Nepalese people in the formation of this college and remarked at its inauguration, "With the opening of this college, I have hacked my own leg." The establishment of Tri-Chandra College paved way for higher education in Nepal. Gradually more colleges were built. Two of the reputable colleges were Nepal National College, also known as Shanker Dev Campus, in Kathmandu and Thakur Ram College in Birgunj.
Tribhuvan University was Nepal's first university and was established in 1959. The Queen mother, Kanti Rajyalaxmi Devi Shah, was the first Chancellor of the university. The Academic Council is the supreme academic body of the university and the Board of Studies designs the curricula. Initially, postgraduate courses were offered in some humanities and social sciences and were based on the curricula of Patna University in India that also conducted examinations until 1962. In 1991, only 1.73 percent of the population had acquired a bachelor's degree of which only 0.44 percent were women and 1.29 percent were men.
On December 11, 1991, Kathmandu University was established as a private university. In 1993, the School of Management was established at its campus in collaboration with the Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta (IIMC) and the first batch of Master of Business Administration (MBA) students were enrolled. The school of Engineering and School of Science opened in 1994 and offered several undergraduate programs. The School of Education and Arts was established in 1996. In 1997, the Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) were launched.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, Mahendra Sanskrit University, Purbanchal University, Siddhartha University, and Pokhra University were also established. Many of these are private ventures. In 1998, Tribhuvan University was the largest university with 150,000 students and 62 constituent and 132 affiliated campuses. The costs of tertiary education are very low at Tribhuvan University, while they are very high at the private Kathmandu University.
The Bachelor's level of university education after grade 12 is a three-year duration with yearly examinations. The Bachelor's Degree courses in technical institutes like Engineering and Medicine take four years to complete. The Master's Degree follows the Bachelor's Degree and takes two years with yearly examinations. In the technical arena, only the Institute of Science and Technology and, in some selected fields, the Institute of Engineering offers Master's level programs. The university education also includes a Doctor of Philosophy degree in some disciplines and subject areas.
At the tertiary level, in the 1960s, all programs of vocational education were brought under the umbrella of Tribhuvan University and five technical institutes were formed. They initially offered programs at the PCL level. These institutes were: the Institute of Engineering that focused on civil engineering related training such as road building, drafting, surveying, electrical engineering related training, and mechanical engineering related training; the Institute of Medicine that focused on Ayurvedic related training, nursing, and laboratory technician courses; the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science; the Institute of Forestry; and the Institute of Applied Science and Technology. The Institute of Applied Science and Technology has since been turned into a research center. The other four institutes that started their programs at certificate level now offer Diploma (Bachelor of Technology) and Degree (Master of Technology) and are gradually moving toward autonomous status.
Nepal - Higher Education
The first institution of higher education to be established in Nepal was the Tribhuvan Chandra Intermediate College (later renamed Tri-Chandra College) in 1918. The Rana Prime Minister, Chandra Shamsher, was opposed to higher education and saw it as a threat to monarchy. Nonetheless, he yielded to the growing pressure from Nepalese people in the formation of this college and remarked at its inauguration, "With the opening of this college, I have hacked my own leg." The establishment of Tri-Chandra College paved way for higher education in Nepal. Gradually more colleges were built. Two of the reputable colleges were Nepal National College, also known as Shanker Dev Campus, in Kathmandu and Thakur Ram College in Birgunj.
Tribhuvan University was Nepal's first university and was established in 1959. The Queen mother, Kanti Rajyalaxmi Devi Shah, was the first Chancellor of the university. The Academic Council is the supreme academic body of the university and the Board of Studies designs the curricula. Initially, postgraduate courses were offered in some humanities and social sciences and were based on the curricula of Patna University in India that also conducted examinations until 1962. In 1991, only 1.73 percent of the population had acquired a bachelor's degree of which only 0.44 percent were women and 1.29 percent were men.
On December 11, 1991, Kathmandu University was established as a private university. In 1993, the School of Management was established at its campus in collaboration with the Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta (IIMC) and the first batch of Master of Business Administration (MBA) students were enrolled. The school of Engineering and School of Science opened in 1994 and offered several undergraduate programs. The School of Education and Arts was established in 1996. In 1997, the Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) were launched.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, Mahendra Sanskrit University, Purbanchal University, Siddhartha University, and Pokhra University were also established. Many of these are private ventures. In 1998, Tribhuvan University was the largest university with 150,000 students and 62 constituent and 132 affiliated campuses. The costs of tertiary education are very low at Tribhuvan University, while they are very high at the private Kathmandu University.
The Bachelor's level of university education after grade 12 is a three-year duration with yearly examinations. The Bachelor's Degree courses in technical institutes like Engineering and Medicine take four years to complete. The Master's Degree follows the Bachelor's Degree and takes two years with yearly examinations. In the technical arena, only the Institute of Science and Technology and, in some selected fields, the Institute of Engineering offers Master's level programs. The university education also includes a Doctor of Philosophy degree in some disciplines and subject areas.
At the tertiary level, in the 1960s, all programs of vocational education were brought under the umbrella of Tribhuvan University and five technical institutes were formed. They initially offered programs at the PCL level. These institutes were: the Institute of Engineering that focused on civil engineering related training such as road building, drafting, surveying, electrical engineering related training, and mechanical engineering related training; the Institute of Medicine that focused on Ayurvedic related training, nursing, and laboratory technician courses; the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science; the Institute of Forestry; and the Institute of Applied Science and Technology. The Institute of Applied Science and Technology has since been turned into a research center. The other four institutes that started their programs at certificate level now offer Diploma (Bachelor of Technology) and Degree (Master of Technology) and are gradually moving toward autonomous status.
Nepal - Higher Education
election in HCOE
Recently in the college,student's council election was held in which 6 civil engineering students of batch 2065 were also fighting for different posts .Out of them only 3 got elected .They are Dinesh Neupane,,khem Raj Karki Thapa and Prashant Shrestha.
Sources
Worcester Polytechnic Institute – Civil and Environmental Engineering Department website
ASCE website
Army Corps of Engineers website
http://engineering.suite101.com/article.cfm/engineering_101
ASCE website
Army Corps of Engineers website
http://engineering.suite101.com/article.cfm/engineering_101
Branches of Civil Engineering
Some of the branches of civil engineering include:
Transportation – This branch of civil engineering is concerned with developing transportation systems, including highways, airports and runways, and rail systems.
Environmental – Environmental engineering involves wastewater treatment, air pollution management, and the handling and processing of hazardous wastes.
Geotechnical – Geotechnical engineering includes the design and construction of rock and soil based structures, including foundations and retaining walls.
Structural – Structural engineering includes the design and construction of steel structures, including buildings, bridges, tunnels, and offshore structures such as oil rigs.
Water Resources – This branch includes construction of dams, canals, and water pipeline systems, as well as conservation and resource management.
Civil engineers have been vital to the advancement of the human race, and continue to benefit humanity through the development of structures and systems that are used daily by millions of people.
Some of the branches of civil engineering include:
Transportation – This branch of civil engineering is concerned with developing transportation systems, including highways, airports and runways, and rail systems.
Environmental – Environmental engineering involves wastewater treatment, air pollution management, and the handling and processing of hazardous wastes.
Geotechnical – Geotechnical engineering includes the design and construction of rock and soil based structures, including foundations and retaining walls.
Structural – Structural engineering includes the design and construction of steel structures, including buildings, bridges, tunnels, and offshore structures such as oil rigs.
Water Resources – This branch includes construction of dams, canals, and water pipeline systems, as well as conservation and resource management.
Civil engineers have been vital to the advancement of the human race, and continue to benefit humanity through the development of structures and systems that are used daily by millions of people.
Civil Engineering 101 An Introduction to Civil Engineers and What They Do
Civil engineering is one of the oldest of the engineering professions. Ancient feats such as the building of the Egyptian pyramids and Roman road systems are based on civil engineering principles.
Civil engineers can be found in all areas of society from small private contractors to municipal agencies, federal government organizations, and the military. One of the largest civil engineering organizations in the United States is the Army Corps of Engineers, which despite its name is a primarily civilian organization focused on the development of canals, locks, and dams; flood control, and other public works projects.
Civil Engineering Education
Because civil engineering focuses on the study of structural systems, the core courses in a civil engineering curriculum reflect this. Most civil engineers start their learning with basic physics and calculus courses. Later courses can include geology, soil mechanics, and design of steel structures. A civil engineering curriculum is usually rounded out with advanced classes that match the student's desired specialty, which may hydrology, development of concrete structures, and highway design, among other specialties.
Civil engineers can be found in all areas of society from small private contractors to municipal agencies, federal government organizations, and the military. One of the largest civil engineering organizations in the United States is the Army Corps of Engineers, which despite its name is a primarily civilian organization focused on the development of canals, locks, and dams; flood control, and other public works projects.
Civil Engineering Education
Because civil engineering focuses on the study of structural systems, the core courses in a civil engineering curriculum reflect this. Most civil engineers start their learning with basic physics and calculus courses. Later courses can include geology, soil mechanics, and design of steel structures. A civil engineering curriculum is usually rounded out with advanced classes that match the student's desired specialty, which may hydrology, development of concrete structures, and highway design, among other specialties.
defination
Civil engineering is one branch of the engineering profession, and is concerned with the understanding development of structures meant for public use.
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